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English Linguistics There are 8 word classes. 1. nouns 5. adverbs 2. pronouns 6. prepositions 3. verbs 7. infinitives 4. adjectives 8. conjunctions A sentence, or clause, possesses 1. Subject nominal 2. Predicate verb phrase All in a sentence will belong to either. Nominal Group 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause Therefore, a sentence will possess one of these combinations. 1. Subject noun phrase and predicate verb phrase 2. Subject pronoun phrase and predicate verb phrase 3. Subject present participle phrase and predicate verb phrase 4. Subject infinitive phrase and predicate verb phrase 5. Subject noun clause and predicate verb phrase The subject is what the sentence is about. The predicate is what the subject is doing. The predicate verb phrase is also called a finite verb phrase. Phrases A phrase possesses 1. Head word 2. Modifiers There are 5 phrase types. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Verb phrase 4. Prepositional phrase 5. Infinitive phrase There are 5 head word types. 1. Nouns 2. Pronouns 3. Verbs 4. Prepositions 5. Infinitives A participle is a type of verb, and a participle phrase is a type of verb phrase. Examples: [throwing] the ball has [thrown] the ball Examples of Phrases 1. Noun phrase the big [man] with the cigar 2. Pronoun phrase [he] who enters [all] of the men 3. Verb phrase quickly [threw] the ball down the street 4. Prepositional phrase [in] the car 5. Infinitive phrase [to] stress his point There are 2 clause types. 1. Independent clause 2. Dependent clause A dependent clause, like it’s name, depends on an independent clause for its existence. A dependent clause links to an independent clause with a word called a subordinator. Example: [What Tom said] worried me. The dependent clause is the sentence What Tom said (Tom said what). The subordinator is the word (what). The dependent clause is embedded (nested) within the independent clause and functions, in this case, as its subject nominal. There are 3 dependent clause types. 1. Noun clause 2. Adjective clause 3. Adverb clause Modifiers There are 2 modifier types. 1. Adjectivals 2. Adverbials Adjectivals modify nominals. Adverbials modify verbs. Some modifiers are pre-modifiers and some are post-modifiers. Meaning, some modifiers occur before their head word and some occur after their head word. Modifiers are not essential to a sentence, unless they are complements. Otherwise, if they were removed from a sentence, the sentence would still make sense. They only provide extra information. A complement is a special type of modifier which is essential. Adjectivals 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals Adjective noun phrase Adjective pronoun phrase Adjective present participle phrase Adjective infinitive phrase Adjective noun clause (or adjective clause) Adverbials 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals Adverb noun phrase Adverb pronoun phrase Adverb present participle phrase Adverb infinitive phrase Adverb noun clause 5. Adverb clause In all, the set of modifiers is 1. adjectives, adverbs 2. adjective/adverb prepositional phrases 3. adjective/adverb past participle phrases 4. adjective/adverb nominals 5. adverb clauses There are also preposition and infinitive modifiers which are preposition + noun phrase infinitive + verb phrase Lexical words are words which inspire the imagination. tree run big quick Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and some verbs are lexical. Lexical word classes are open classes. Meaning, new words are being added periodically. Pronouns, prepositions and infinitives are called grammatical head words, and are closed-class. Class and Function A phrase of a particular class may function as a different class. For example, a noun phrase may function as an adjective John[, a busy man,] arrived. or an adverb. John threw [the ball]. [ A quick thinker,] the student caught the falling vase. A present participle phrase, while being a verb phrase, can function as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase. Examples: Tom[, running down the field,] threw the ball. [Running quickly,] the student got to class on time. [Going to the park] is fun. Verbs Head Verb Train A head verb is actually a head verb train. There is a modal auxiliary verb, followed by a perfect auxiliary verb, followed by the head verb. Modal auxiliary + perfect auxiliary + head verb Examples: will have played had run will go threw The auxiliary verbs are conditional, and depend on the time-reference of the sentence. The time-reference is called the aspect of the sentence. Time-references There are 12 aspects. 1. Past simple 2. Present simple 3. Future simple 4. Past perfect simple 5. Present perfect simple 6. Future perfect simple 7. Past progressive 8. Present progressive 9. Future progressive 10. Past perfect progressive 11. Present perfect progressive 12. Future perfect progressive Simple aspects refer to singular events. Progressive aspects refer to on-going or periodic events. There are 9 modal auxiliary verbs. can could may might will would shall should must There are 3 perfect auxiliary verbs. have has had The choice of modal and perfect auxiliary verbs, along with the head verb, will determine the time-relationship of the sentence. Example: I will have been writing The head verb is ‘been‘. (‘writing’ is a participle adjective) The verb train ‘will have been’ refers to a future perfect progressive event. This event is one in which action will take place up to a certain future event. I will have been writing my letter when school lets out. Modal auxiliary verbs are also called 'future' auxiliary verbs, because they are only used in future aspects. Linking Head Verbs Some head verbs depict action. run play climb Other head verbs depict a linking effect. Tom [is] a man. Tom [is] happy. Tom [is] in the car. On one side of a linking verb will be a nominal. On the other side will be an adjectival, which modifies the nominal. [nominal] is [adjectival] The nominal, and its adjectival, are the total subject nominal. The predicate verb phrase is [linking verb + any adverbials]. Tom [is] happy [to be here]. Linking-verb Trains John ( ) happy. Any verb train which satisfies this sentence qualifies as a 'linking-verb train'. John is happy. John seems happy. John will be happy. John has been happy. John looks happy. Watch for this trap. Noun + linking verb + adjective John acts happy. Noun + lexical verb + adverb John acts happily. Linking verbs are grammatical head verbs and are closed-class. List of Linking Head Verbs was were is am are been be seemed appeared acted seem appear act seems appears acts looked sounded felt tasted smelled look sound feel taste smell looks sounds feels tastes smells Watch for this trap. John has been happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Happy’ is an adjective. John has been feeling happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Feeling’ is a participle adjective. ‘Happy’ is an adverb modifying the participle verb ‘feeling’. Inflections A base word is a word without inflection. There are 3 ways of inflecting a base word. 1. Prefix A prefix is an addition to the front of a base word. form reform 2. Suffix A suffix is an addition to the back of a base word. form forming Prefixes and suffixes are called affixes. Both may be added. reforming 3. Mutation A mutation is a change of the base word. goose geese Inflections provide information about sentence tense and number. Tense There are 3 tenses. Past Present Future Future tense always uses a modal auxiliary verb, and a present or past-tense form of head verb. (modal) + have + … will write will have written Person There are 3 persons. First (me) second (you) and third (them) Number There are 2 numbers. Singular (he) and plural (they) Sentence Agreement Subject noun may be inflected, and predicate verb may be inflected. Both must agree about number. A tree grows. Trees grow. Auxiliary verbs must agree about tense, person and number. We have arrived. We had arrived. You have arrived. He has arrived. They have arrived. Verb Conjugation A head verb may inflect, and assume various auxiliary verbs, to agree with sentence aspect, tense, person and number. This is verb conjugation. Participles There are present-tense and past-tense participles. A verb with an ‘ing’ suffix functions as a present-tense participle. run running The [running] man arrived. Past-tense participles may use a suffix or be mutated. The [battered] shed was torn down. The [flown] kite has landed. Any verb immediately following a perfect auxiliary verb must be a finite linking past-tense participle head verb I (have been) sad. or, a finite lexical past-tense participle head verb. I (have flown) my kite. Any verb immediately following a linking-verb train must be a participle adjective. The kite (has been) flying. The kite (has been) flown. The kite (is) flying. The kite (was) flown. Present-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [running] man arrived. The man[, running down the road,] arrived. The man is [running down the road]. [Running quickly,] Tom made it to class on time. or nominals [Running] is fun. [Walking in the park] is relaxing. or adverbs. [Expecting success,] the student studied carefully. Past-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [flown] kite has landed. The kite[, flown earlier,] has landed. The kite was [flown yesterday]. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. or finite verb phrases I [have flown my kite]. I [have been] sad. or adverbs. [Drawn into war,] the country prepared itself. Even though a participle phrase is functioning as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase, it is still classified as a verb phrase, and is subject to all the verb-phrase rules. It may have verb modifiers (adverbials). [casually walking in the park] [carefully drawn on paper] Participle Phrases 1. Adjective participle phrase (past and present) 2. Noun participle phrase (present) 3. Adverb participle phrase (past and present) 4. Finite verb participle phrase (past) Lexical Head Verbs There are 2 types of lexical head verbs. All other verbs are linking or auxiliary verbs and are closed-class. 1. Action 2. Stative Action verbs depict physical action. run jump Stative verbs depict mental action. agree imagine promise Some adjectives introduce a noun or pronoun. a tree the school any ones Nouns A noun is a word depicting a person, place, thing or idea. Tom London rock happiness Any nominal functions as a noun phrase, and can replace a noun phrase. Pronouns A pronoun is a word which substitutes for any other nominal. he she they All pronouns have antecedents. An antecedent is the nominal substituted with a pronoun. John, who won the race, is here. The pronoun is 'who'. Its antecedent is 'John'. Possessive Nouns and Pronouns A noun or pronoun can precede a noun, indicating possession. Tom’s bike his book his books Possessive nouns and pronouns function as adjectives, and also introduce. Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a head word called a preposition, followed by a nominal. [in] the car A prepositional phrase can modify a noun, a pronoun and a verb. Noun modifier: The man [with the big nose] arrived. Pronoun modifier: All [of the men] arrived. Verb modifier: The man ran [down the road]. Cascading Prepositional Phrases The man [with the car [in the driveway]] is here. Prepositional Phrases 1. Adjective prepositional phrase 2. Adverb prepositional phrase List of Prepositions about above across after against along among around as at before behind below beneath beside between by down during except for from in inside instead into like near of off on onto out outside over past since through to toward under until up upon with within without Complements A complement is a word or phrase which is necessary to complete a sentence. Tom threw. This sentence has a subject nominal (Tom) and a predicate verb phrase (threw). Yet, the sentence is incomplete. To help the sentence to make sense, something must be added. Tom threw the ball. This sentence now makes sense, because we have added a complement. [the ball] Complements are conditional. Tom laughed. This sentence does not need a complement, and makes sense as is. Nouns, pronouns and verbs may use complements, prepositions and infinitives always have complements. These complements are a form of modifier. Subject nominal and predicate verb phrase complement one-another. Noun and Pronoun Complements Some adjectives complement a singular noun or pronoun. a tree trees the one ones Implied Noun The (set of) trees Verb Complements Some adverbs complement a verb. Some head verbs must have a complement. throw kick want These verbs are called transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs do not need a complement. arrive sneeze sit A verb complement will be a nominal [the ball], functioning as an adverb, and is called a direct object. Some verb complements are followed by adverbial prepositional phrases. Tom threw the ball [to me]. The adverbial prepositional phrase may be shortened and moved to the left of the direct object. Tom threw me the ball. Tom gave him the book. This is now called an indirect object, and has become a nominal (formerly the prepositional phrase nominal). Tom did a favor for me. Tom did me a favor. The class elected the president as Tom. The class elected Tom the president. Indirect objects are not complements. All linking verbs are intransitive. Participles can be transitive. Tom is [throwing the ball]. Objects A nominal which is not the subject nominal is called an object nominal. A preposition complement is a nominal, and together make a prepositional phrase. Preposition + nominal [in] [the park] Any nominal can be the subject nominal, or an object nominal. There are 3 types of object nominals. 1. Direct object nominal 2. Indirect object nominal 3. Preposition nominal (called the prepositional object). These three objects are modifiers. The direct object modifies and complements the head verb. The indirect object modifies the head verb. The prepositional object modifies and complements a preposition. Adjectivals Adjectivals are pre-modifiers or post-modifiers or across a linking verb. An adjective may use an enhancer. [very] big A participle adjective may use an adverb. [quickly] running There are 4 types of adjectivals. 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals 1. Adjective Tom is [very happy]. Tom[, very happy,] arrived. [Very happy,] Tom arrived. The [very happy] man arrived. 2. Adjective prepositional phrase Tom is [in the car]. Tom[, in the car,] arrived. [As President,] Tom spoke first. 3. Adjective past participle phrase The ball is [thrown by me] The ball[, thrown by me,] flew far. The [thrown] ball flew far. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. 4. Adjective nominals Any nominal can function as an adjective, and modify another nominal. There are 5 types of nominals. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause As adjectivals, 1. Tom is [a busy man]. Tom[, a busy man,] arrived. [A busy man,] Tom was never late. 2. Tom is [one of the students]. Tom[, one of the students,] arrived. 3. Tom is [running down the field]. Tom[, running down the field,] arrived. The [quickly running] man arrived. [Quickly running,] Tom arrived. 4. The plan is [to enjoy our vacation]. The plan[, to enjoy our vacation,] is a good one. 5. The truth is [what I heard]. The truth[, what I heard,] makes sense. Adjective noun clauses are simply called adjective clauses. A nominal and its adjective clause can be inverted. What I heard, the truth, makes sense. Confusion about Adjectivals and Adverbials [Quickly running,] Tom took the ball in. [Quickly running,] the quarterback took the ball in. In the first sentence, the modifier can modify at least the nominal. Therefore, is an adjectival. Tom[, quickly running,] took the ball in. In the second sentence, the modifier cannot be an adjectival, because a pre-modifying adjectival cannot exist outside of a noun and its introducer. The [quickly running] quarterback took the ball in. The quarterback [,quickly running,] took the ball in. Therefore, is an adverbial. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase begins with the infinitive head word ‘to’, followed by its complement, a verb phrase. The verb phrase is a subset of the verb class, and like a participle phrase, is subject to all the verb phrase rules. to + [verb phrase] to drive the car to follow the leader to be or not to be Infinitive phrases can function as adjectives, and other functions within a sentence. They can function as subject nominals (or any nominals). [To win] serves our purpose. They can function as adverbials. Tom quickly shouted [to warn us]. Participle verb phrases and infinitive verb phrases are called non-finite verb phrases, because they have no subject nominal (with the exception of past-tense finite participle phrases). Tom has thrown the ball. Tom has been sad. A finite verb phrase always has a subject nominal as complement. Present participle phrases and infinitive phrases are interchangeable. (functioning as noun) [Walking in the park] makes me happy. [To walk in the park] makes me happy. (functioning as adjective) Tom is [going next]. Tom is [to go next]. (functioning as adverb) [Beginning promptly,] the boy started his task. [To begin promptly,] the boy started his task. However, do not be deceived. 'Walking in the park' and 'To walk in the park' have two different meanings. Prepositions and infinitives are grammatical head words, followed by their complements. Preposition + complement Infinitive + complement These complements are a form of modifier. Head verbs in infinitive verb phrases are base verbs with no inflections, auxiliary verbs are not used. [To quickly throw the ball] wins the game. Cascading Infinitive Phrases I am going [to need [to rest]] soon. Infinitive Phrases 1. Adjective infinitive phrase 2. Noun infinitive phrase 3. Adverb infinitive phrase Noun Clauses A noun clause is a dependent clause which functions as a noun phrase. It may be the subject nominal or any object nominal. A noun clause possesses a subordinator word. Noun clause as subject [(How) the team plays] will make a difference. As objects Direct object (complement) I asked [(why) he was late]. Indirect object (modifier) Tom gave [(what) you said] some thought. Prepositional object (complement) Much of [(what) he said] is true. When a noun clause is a complement, it is an essential part of its parent clause, and is embedded within it (not just tacked on). Adjective Clauses (noun clauses functioning as adjectives) An adjective clause is a dependent clause which modifies a nominal. An adjective clause always contains a subordinator word. The subordinator word can be a pronoun, or an adverb. The subordinator word is always within the adjective clause. Meaning, the subordinator links to, and is part of, the dependent clause. Tom[, who won the race,] is there. The pronoun subordinator, (who), links the dependent adjective clause to the parent sentence, and also serves as the dependent clause subject pronoun. The pronoun subordinator can be subject pronoun or any object pronoun in the dependent clause. Subject pronoun (who) won the race Direct object (whom) I’ve met (I’ve met whom) Indirect object to (whom) I threw the ball (I threw the ball to whom) (I threw whom the ball) Possessive pronoun (whose) car is parked outside Prepositional object to (whom) I am addressing (I am addressing to whom) Adverb subordinators for adjective clauses also link to, and are members of the adjective clauses. The day [(when) I retire (I retire when)] is soon. An adjective clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical (who) threw the ball Linking (who) is reading A linking adjective clause can be reduced. who is [adjectival] We may reduce the clause to [adjectival]. Example: Tom[, who is running for President,] spoke. Tom[, running for President,] spoke. Reduced Adjective Clauses Reducing an adjective clause can be done if the adjective clause is a linking-verb clause. Tom[, who was happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, who is in the car,] waved. Tom[, in the car,] waved. Tom[, who is the President,] spoke first. Tom[, the President,] spoke first. Tom[, who is he who won,] cheered. Tom[, he who won,] cheered. Tom[, who was running down the road,] waved. Tom[, running down the road,] waved. Tom[, who is to try next,] rested. Tom[, to try next,] rested. The idea[, which is that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, we should all help,] is a good one. If a reduced adjective clause becomes a nominal, it is called an appositive. A nominal and its reduced adjective clause can be inverted. Happy about the news, Tom cheered. In the car, Tom waved. The President, Tom, spoke first. He who won, Tom, cheered. Running down the road, Tom waved. To try next, Tom rested. That we should all help, the idea is a good one. Adverbials Any adverbial is very mobile, and can be moved around the sentence. [Quickly,] Tom ran across the room. Tom [quickly] ran across the room. Tom ran [quickly] across the room. Tom ran across the room [quickly]. An adverbial can be said, therefore, to be a sentence modifier. If a modifier can be moved around, it must be an adverbial. If it cannot well, it must be an adjectival. There are 5 types of adverbials. 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals 5. Adverb clause 1. Adverb Tom ran [very quickly]. 2. Adverb prepositional phrase Tom sang [on the stage]. 3. Adverb past participle phrase [Flown often,] the kite is our favorite toy. 4. Adverb nominals [A quick thinker,] the student caught the vase. [One who cares,] the nurse stayed with the disabled woman. [Quickly running,] the boy made it to class. [To be sure,] it is better to be silent. [What is true,] the King prefers a small ceremony. 5. Adverb clause The subordinator is always first, and is outside the dependent clause. [(Because) he is captain,] Tom gets first preference. Tom[, (because) he is captain,] gets first preference. Tom gets first preference [(because) he is captain]. An adverb clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical after I drove the car Linking until I was reading Adverb clauses can be reduced if they use linking verbs. Examples: [Though he was happy,] [Though happy,] [When he was in the car,] [When in the car,] [As he was President,] [As President,] [As Tom was he who won,] [As he who won,] [When he was running,] [When running,] [As he is to try next,] [As to try next,] Some adverb clauses reduce to adverbial prepositional phrases. As he is President, As President, There are no hard and fast rules about which words or how many words may be removed from a clause to reduce it. There should be a sensible balance between brevity and clarity. Watch for confusion with reduced clauses. When washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven(?) When it was washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven. Covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway(?) As it was covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway. Reduced modifying clauses and modifying phrases may conflict with one-another. The table with the vase near the door is green. The table near the door with the vase is green. Is the table or the vase near the door? Does the table or the door have a vase? The solution is: The table with the vase and near the door is green. Modifiers An adverbial can modify an entire sentence. A linking-verb sentence can use adverbials. Tom is happy [to be here]. Tom is running [down the road]. In this sentence, Tom, happy to be here, cheered. the adverbial [to be here] modifies the reduced adjective clause. who is happy Complements [nominal] is [adjectival] This adjectival is called the subject complement. It modifies, yet is essential to the sentence. This is true of all complements. The subject complement is not to be confused with the subject nominal complement (is). Note that the adjectival modifies the entire nominal. Examples: [To win the game] is [great]. [Winning the game] is [great]. [How Tom plays] is [great]. Emphasis Placing an adverb up front provides emphasis for that word. Now he tells me! Off we go! Verb Aspects (in active voice) There are four present-tense verb aspects, and three tenses, for a total of twelve aspects. An aspect gives a sentence a proper relation with time. 1. Simple 2. Perfect 3. Progressive 4. Perfect progressive A sentence’s relation with time determines which verb train is appropriate. 1. Simple A simple event is a singular event. Past: I [threw] the ball. Present: I [throw] the ball. Future: I [will throw] the ball. 2. Perfect A singular event which occurs before another singular event. Past: I [had thrown] the ball when the bell rang. Present: I [have thrown] the ball (before now). Future: I [will have thrown] the ball when the bell rings. 3. Progressive An ongoing event occurring through another event. Past: I [was] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [am] writing my letter. Future: I [will be] writing my letter when the bell rings. 4. Perfect progressive An ongoing event occurring up to a singular event. Past: I [had been] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [have been] writing my letter for 1 hour. Future: I [will have been] writing my letter when the bell rings. Note that in progressive and perfect-progressive aspects, [linking-verb train] + [any adjectivals except past-tense participles] In passive voice, Simple Past: The ball was thrown by me. Present: The ball is thrown by me. Future: The ball will be thrown by me. Perfect Past: The ball had been thrown by me when the bell rang. Present: The ball has been thrown by me. Future: The ball will have been thrown by me when the bell rings. Progressive Past: My letter was being written by me when the bell rang. Present: My letter is being written by me. Future: none Perfect progressive Past: none Present: none Future: none It is awkward and unacceptable to use passive voice with the remaining aspects. My letter will have been being written by me when the bell rings. When changing an active voice sentence to passive voice, keep the aspect the same. Conjunctions If two sentences are joined, and they can be reversed without loss of meaning, the conjunction is a coordinator. I was reading [and] John was writing. John was writing [and] I was reading. Otherwise, the conjunction is a subordinator. Subordinators Sentences using subordinators are called complex sentences. Sentences using coordinators and subordinators are called compound-complex sentences. Adjective clause and noun clause subordinators are always within the clauses. Adverb clause subordinators are always outside the clauses. Adjective Clauses Pronoun subordinators Who whom whose which what These pronouns are called relative pronouns. Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. ‘Who’ refers to people. ‘Whom’ refers to people. ‘Whose’ refers to people. ‘Which’ refers to things. 'What' refers to things. John, who won the contest, cheered. Bill, to whom I gave the book, thanked me. Tom, whose car is red, arrived. The tree, which was quite tall, finally fell. The game, what happened yesterday, was won. Pronoun subordinators link to and are part of the dependent clause. ‘who won the contest’ is a complete sentence. ‘to whom I gave the book’ (I gave the book to whom) is a complete sentence. ‘whose car is red’ is a complete sentence. ‘which was quite tall’ is a complete sentence. 'what happened yesterday' is a complete sentence. The subordinator pronoun can be subject or any object in the dependent clause. As subject who won the contest As direct object whom I've seen (I've seen whom) As indirect object to whom I gave the book (I gave whom the book) As prepositional object to whom I pointed (I pointed to whom) As possessive pronoun whose car is red An adjective clause can modify subject nominal or any object nominal in an independent clause. Subject modifier Tom, who won the contest, cheered. Direct object modifier Tom won the contest, which was difficult. Indirect object modifier Tom gave me, who thanked him, the book. Prepositional object modifier The team played in the park, which is near the school. The modified nominal is the subordinator's antecedent. [Tom], (who) won the contest, cheered. Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses Some adjective clauses help to identify the antecedent. The man who protested left the room. These clauses are not separated with commas. Some adjective clauses are unnecessary. They are separated with commas. Tom, who won the race, visited me. Who and Whom These pronouns are used as subordinators in different ways. ‘who’ is used as subject pronoun. ‘whom’ is used as any object pronoun. Which This subordinator can be used to introduce modification for an entire sentence. John can’t swim, which surprised me. Relative Adverb Subordinators are also part of the dependent clauses. when where why how Next year, when I graduate (I graduate when), I will be ready for success. London, where I work (I work where), lies west. The reason why he came (he came why) is clear. The train, how I travel (I travel how), arrives early. Note that these adverbs have antecedents. [Next year], (when) I graduate, Reducing Adjective Clauses A linking adjective clause can be reduced by omitting the subject subordinator pronoun and the linking verb. Tom, who is the President, arrived. Tom, the President, arrived. Reduced adjective clauses which end up as nominals are called appositives. Preposition Stranding Right: [to] whom I gave the book Wrong: whom I gave the book [to] A possessive noun can be an antecedent. The victory was due to Tom’s, who was quarterback, resolve. Noun Clauses Subordinators are same as adjective clauses. who whom what which whose when why how where Noun clauses can substitute for any nominals. Subject [What he said] worried me. Direct object I wonder [why he is attending]. Indirect object Tom gave [what he said] some thought. Prepositional object Tom talked about [which plan is best]. Noun clause or adjective clause? [What Tom said] worried me. The message[, what Tom said,] worried me. The message is [what Tom said]. Noun clauses and adjective clauses are identical. Their role depends on their place in a sentence. This is true because a nominal (noun clause) can function as an adjectival (adjective clause). Note that all noun clause subordinators ask a question. who? whom? what? where? which? whose? when? why? how? Their answers may substitute for the dependent clauses. As adjective clause subordinators, their answers are their antecedents. The message worried me. What Tom said worried me. The message, what Tom said, worried me. Adverb Clauses Adverb clause subordinators are always at the beginning of the dependent clauses, and are not a part of the clause-sentences. Subordinator + clause sentence (As) I am President, Adverb clauses can be reduced. As President, Any adverbial can be at several locations within a sentence. Quickly the big man with the cigar had fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had quickly fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had fled the scene quickly. Adverbials cannot exist immediately before a verb train, but may exist immediately before a head verb. Adverbial Subordinators after although anytime anywhere as as far as as long as as near as as often as as soon as as if as though because before even if even though for if like once since so so that than that though unless until when while Trailing Subordinators [I’m so tired (that)] I will retire. (That I’m so tired, I will retire.) Adjective clause or adverb clause? Remember, an adverb clause can be moved around. Also, an adjective clause subordinator has an antecedent. Tom, when he tries, wins. Tomorrow, when I go to school, will be a sunny day. Conditional Statements If [sentence 1] then [sentence 2]. If Tom tries then he will win. Conditional statements are used in the mathematics of logical thinking. If I study then I will pass. If I pass then I will succeed. If I succeed then I will make money. Therefore, If I study then I will make money. Adverb clauses [If I study then,] I will make money. Reduced, [If I study,] I will make money. [Had I studied,] I would have passed. (Argument ) (Premise )(Conclusion ) [If I study,][I will make money.] Adverbial subordinators are conditional subordinators. After I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [Tom gave his speech] then [I have arrived].) Before I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [I arrived] then [Tom gave his speech].) Adverbial prepositional phrases are also conditional. As President, Tom spoke first. (If [Tom spoke first] then [he is President].) Actually, all adverbials are conditional. If/then statements can be transposed. IfA thenB = notA or B. Example: If I study, I will make money. = I will not study or I will make money. This transposition is important when you study Propositional Logic. Propositional Logic is the mathematic study of logical text. Absolute Phrases An absolute phrase is really a reduced adverb clause of sorts. It applies a past or present participle. (As) our car (was) [having] (that which had) developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. Our car having developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. (As I was) [having] (the fact that I) entered the building, I went to class. Having entered the building, I went to class. (As) his arms (were) [filled] with books, he could not sit down. His arms filled with books, he could not sit down. Conjunctive Adverbs Two clauses can be linked with conjunctive adverbs. The first clause ends with a period (.) or a semicolon (;) The man refused to comply. [As a result,] he was arrested. Because a conjunctive adverb is an adverb, it can be moved around in a sentence. The man refused to comply. He[, as a result,] was arrested. Conjunctive Adverbs accordingly again also as a result besides consequently finally for example further furthermore hence however in addition in contrast indeed in fact in particular instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless of course otherwise that is then therefore though thus yet This sentence is incorrect. Tom won the race, and therefore got the prize. This is correct. Tom won the race. Therefore, got the prize. Conjunctive adverbs are conditional subordinators. The man refused to comply. As a result, he was arrested. (If [the man was arrested] then [he refused to comply].) Meanwhile, (being) back at the Ranch, [conjunctive adverb][absolute phrase ] [verb ][direct object][prepositional phrase] Fourth Dependent Clause Type ‘That’ and ‘which’ can have entire sentences as their antecedents. The sewerage system overflowed at school. That was disgusting. The sewerage system overflowed at school, which was disgusting. Sentence Insertion Pronoun + antecedent sentence Tom was late. That worried me. That [Tom was late] worried me. The fact (which is) that [Tom was late] worried me. The pronoun (that) serves as the subordinator, also introducing the inserted clause. That [SENTENCE] Inserted clauses are also called that-clauses. Therefore, there are 6 nominals. 1. noun phrase 2. pronoun phrase 3. present participle phrase 4. infinitive phrase 5. noun clause 6. that-clause Adjective that-clause It is [true that people like cats]. It [,that people like cats,] is true. That-clause as subject [That Tom was late] worried me. As direct object I ask [that the class will listen]. Often the subordinator is omitted. I think (that) I will retire. The pronoun ‘what’ can be a nominal-inserter. The ‘inserted nominal’ is actually a reduced adjective clause, or appositive. Tom thought about what [to do next]. What a great player he is! He is what [a great player]! What is Tom doing hiding under his desk? Tom is doing what [hiding under his desk]. What he had to work with was scanty. He had what [to work with ] was scanty. [noun clause ][linking verb][adjective] [infinitive + phrasal verb] A bit of etiquette Wrong: This is John. Right: He is John. Literary Devices Sentence Inversions Grammar is the study of word class and function. Syntax is the study of sentence structure. Clefting It-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. It is Tom who went to the movie yesterday. It was to the movie where Tom went yesterday. It was yesterday when Tom went to the movie. Wh-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. What Tom did was to go to the movie yesterday. Tom saw Bill. Who Tom saw was Bill. Tom went to the classroom. Where Tom went was to the classroom. When Why How Cleft Inversion Tom needs a pen. What Tom needs is a pen. A pen is what Tom needs. Grammatical Patterns Basic Tom threw the ball suddenly. Passive The ball was suddenly thrown by Tom. Leading adverb Suddenly, the ball was thrown by Tom. It-cleft It is Tom who suddenly threw the ball. Wh-cleft What Tom did was to suddenly throw the ball. Dislocation using anticipatory it, they, there, them, with appositive relocation. (given) A very large storage container from an unknown source was dropped off in front of our house. (step 1) It [,a very large storage container from an unknown source,] was dropped off in front of our house. (step 2) It was dropped off in front of our house[, a very large storage container from an unknown source]. Tom threw the ball quickly. Tom threw it, the ball, quickly. Tom threw it quickly, the ball. I weeded the garden. I weeded it, the garden. The garden, I weeded it. Walking in the park is fun. It, walking in the park, is fun. It is fun, walking in the park. What Tom said worried me. It, what Tom said, worried me. It worried me, what Tom said. That is true. That Tom won the contest is true. It, that Tom won the contest, is true. It is true, that Tom won the contest. Spring blossoms smell wonderful. They, spring blossoms, smell wonderful. They smell wonderful, spring blossoms. Trees were everywhere. Trees were there, everywhere. There were trees, everywhere. I gave the books to George. I gave them, the books, to George. The books, I gave them to George. Fronting [adjectival] is [nominal] Happy is Johnathan. Fastened to the wall was a telephone. In the road was a large puddle. [adjectival][nominal] is Huge it was [adverbial][verb][noun] Before the marching soldiers were flung baskets of flower petals. Yesterday came a ferocious storm. Suddenly came the flight of the cranes. [adverbial][auxiliary][noun][verb] Never have I seen a more welcome sight. [direct object][noun][verb] Wise he had become over the years. Why she married him I really don’t know. [phrasal verb inverted][noun] Out jumped the frog from the reeds. End Weight Shift longest element to the end of the sentence. If subject is longest, (given) The prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts is favorable. (improved) It is favorable, the prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts. If direct object is longest, (given) Tom provided a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution for the assembly. (improved) Tom provided for the assembly a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution. (given) Sarah gave the most wonderful gift to Jude. (improved) Sarah gave to Jude the most wonderful gift. If conjunctions are used, longest element last. (given) Tom repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges and washed the car. (improved) Tom washed the car and repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges. If adjectival is longest, (given) Someone who says they’ve known you for years called me up. (improved) Someone called me up who says they’ve known you for years.

English Linguistics There are 8 word classes. 1. nouns 5. adverbs 2. pronouns 6. prepositions 3. verbs 7. infinitives 4. adjectives 8. conjunctions A sentence, or clause, possesses 1. Subject nominal 2. Predicate verb phrase All in a sentence will belong to either. Nominal Group 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause Therefore, a sentence will possess one of these combinations. 1. Subject noun phrase and predicate verb phrase 2. Subject pronoun phrase and predicate verb phrase 3. Subject present participle phrase and predicate verb phrase 4. Subject infinitive phrase and predicate verb phrase 5. Subject noun clause and predicate verb phrase The subject is what the sentence is about. The predicate is what the subject is doing. The predicate verb phrase is also called a finite verb phrase. Phrases A phrase possesses 1. Head word 2. Modifiers There are 5 phrase types. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Verb phrase 4. Prepositional phrase 5. Infinitive phrase There are 5 head word types. 1. Nouns 2. Pronouns 3. Verbs 4. Prepositions 5. Infinitives A participle is a type of verb, and a participle phrase is a type of verb phrase. Examples: [throwing] the ball has [thrown] the ball Examples of Phrases 1. Noun phrase the big [man] with the cigar 2. Pronoun phrase [he] who enters [all] of the men 3. Verb phrase quickly [threw] the ball down the street 4. Prepositional phrase [in] the car 5. Infinitive phrase [to] stress his point There are 2 clause types. 1. Independent clause 2. Dependent clause A dependent clause, like it’s name, depends on an independent clause for its existence. A dependent clause links to an independent clause with a word called a subordinator. Example: [What Tom said] worried me. The dependent clause is the sentence What Tom said (Tom said what). The subordinator is the word (what). The dependent clause is embedded (nested) within the independent clause and functions, in this case, as its subject nominal. There are 3 dependent clause types. 1. Noun clause 2. Adjective clause 3. Adverb clause Modifiers There are 2 modifier types. 1. Adjectivals 2. Adverbials Adjectivals modify nominals. Adverbials modify verbs. Some modifiers are pre-modifiers and some are post-modifiers. Meaning, some modifiers occur before their head word and some occur after their head word. Modifiers are not essential to a sentence, unless they are complements. Otherwise, if they were removed from a sentence, the sentence would still make sense. They only provide extra information. A complement is a special type of modifier which is essential. Adjectivals 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals Adjective noun phrase Adjective pronoun phrase Adjective present participle phrase Adjective infinitive phrase Adjective noun clause (or adjective clause) Adverbials 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals Adverb noun phrase Adverb pronoun phrase Adverb present participle phrase Adverb infinitive phrase Adverb noun clause 5. Adverb clause In all, the set of modifiers is 1. adjectives, adverbs 2. adjective/adverb prepositional phrases 3. adjective/adverb past participle phrases 4. adjective/adverb nominals 5. adverb clauses There are also preposition and infinitive modifiers which are preposition + noun phrase infinitive + verb phrase Lexical words are words which inspire the imagination. tree run big quick Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and some verbs are lexical. Lexical word classes are open classes. Meaning, new words are being added periodically. Pronouns, prepositions and infinitives are called grammatical head words, and are closed-class. Class and Function A phrase of a particular class may function as a different class. For example, a noun phrase may function as an adjective John[, a busy man,] arrived. or an adverb. John threw [the ball]. [ A quick thinker,] the student caught the falling vase. A present participle phrase, while being a verb phrase, can function as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase. Examples: Tom[, running down the field,] threw the ball. [Running quickly,] the student got to class on time. [Going to the park] is fun. Verbs Head Verb Train A head verb is actually a head verb train. There is a modal auxiliary verb, followed by a perfect auxiliary verb, followed by the head verb. Modal auxiliary + perfect auxiliary + head verb Examples: will have played had run will go threw The auxiliary verbs are conditional, and depend on the time-reference of the sentence. The time-reference is called the aspect of the sentence. Time-references There are 12 aspects. 1. Past simple 2. Present simple 3. Future simple 4. Past perfect simple 5. Present perfect simple 6. Future perfect simple 7. Past progressive 8. Present progressive 9. Future progressive 10. Past perfect progressive 11. Present perfect progressive 12. Future perfect progressive Simple aspects refer to singular events. Progressive aspects refer to on-going or periodic events. There are 9 modal auxiliary verbs. can could may might will would shall should must There are 3 perfect auxiliary verbs. have has had The choice of modal and perfect auxiliary verbs, along with the head verb, will determine the time-relationship of the sentence. Example: I will have been writing The head verb is ‘been‘. (‘writing’ is a participle adjective) The verb train ‘will have been’ refers to a future perfect progressive event. This event is one in which action will take place up to a certain future event. I will have been writing my letter when school lets out. Modal auxiliary verbs are also called 'future' auxiliary verbs, because they are only used in future aspects. Linking Head Verbs Some head verbs depict action. run play climb Other head verbs depict a linking effect. Tom [is] a man. Tom [is] happy. Tom [is] in the car. On one side of a linking verb will be a nominal. On the other side will be an adjectival, which modifies the nominal. [nominal] is [adjectival] The nominal, and its adjectival, are the total subject nominal. The predicate verb phrase is [linking verb + any adverbials]. Tom [is] happy [to be here]. Linking-verb Trains John ( ) happy. Any verb train which satisfies this sentence qualifies as a 'linking-verb train'. John is happy. John seems happy. John will be happy. John has been happy. John looks happy. Watch for this trap. Noun + linking verb + adjective John acts happy. Noun + lexical verb + adverb John acts happily. Linking verbs are grammatical head verbs and are closed-class. List of Linking Head Verbs was were is am are been be seemed appeared acted seem appear act seems appears acts looked sounded felt tasted smelled look sound feel taste smell looks sounds feels tastes smells Watch for this trap. John has been happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Happy’ is an adjective. John has been feeling happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Feeling’ is a participle adjective. ‘Happy’ is an adverb modifying the participle verb ‘feeling’. Inflections A base word is a word without inflection. There are 3 ways of inflecting a base word. 1. Prefix A prefix is an addition to the front of a base word. form reform 2. Suffix A suffix is an addition to the back of a base word. form forming Prefixes and suffixes are called affixes. Both may be added. reforming 3. Mutation A mutation is a change of the base word. goose geese Inflections provide information about sentence tense and number. Tense There are 3 tenses. Past Present Future Future tense always uses a modal auxiliary verb, and a present or past-tense form of head verb. (modal) + have + … will write will have written Person There are 3 persons. First (me) second (you) and third (them) Number There are 2 numbers. Singular (he) and plural (they) Sentence Agreement Subject noun may be inflected, and predicate verb may be inflected. Both must agree about number. A tree grows. Trees grow. Auxiliary verbs must agree about tense, person and number. We have arrived. We had arrived. You have arrived. He has arrived. They have arrived. Verb Conjugation A head verb may inflect, and assume various auxiliary verbs, to agree with sentence aspect, tense, person and number. This is verb conjugation. Participles There are present-tense and past-tense participles. A verb with an ‘ing’ suffix functions as a present-tense participle. run running The [running] man arrived. Past-tense participles may use a suffix or be mutated. The [battered] shed was torn down. The [flown] kite has landed. Any verb immediately following a perfect auxiliary verb must be a finite linking past-tense participle head verb I (have been) sad. or, a finite lexical past-tense participle head verb. I (have flown) my kite. Any verb immediately following a linking-verb train must be a participle adjective. The kite (has been) flying. The kite (has been) flown. The kite (is) flying. The kite (was) flown. Present-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [running] man arrived. The man[, running down the road,] arrived. The man is [running down the road]. [Running quickly,] Tom made it to class on time. or nominals [Running] is fun. [Walking in the park] is relaxing. or adverbs. [Expecting success,] the student studied carefully. Past-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [flown] kite has landed. The kite[, flown earlier,] has landed. The kite was [flown yesterday]. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. or finite verb phrases I [have flown my kite]. I [have been] sad. or adverbs. [Drawn into war,] the country prepared itself. Even though a participle phrase is functioning as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase, it is still classified as a verb phrase, and is subject to all the verb-phrase rules. It may have verb modifiers (adverbials). [casually walking in the park] [carefully drawn on paper] Participle Phrases 1. Adjective participle phrase (past and present) 2. Noun participle phrase (present) 3. Adverb participle phrase (past and present) 4. Finite verb participle phrase (past) Lexical Head Verbs There are 2 types of lexical head verbs. All other verbs are linking or auxiliary verbs and are closed-class. 1. Action 2. Stative Action verbs depict physical action. run jump Stative verbs depict mental action. agree imagine promise Some adjectives introduce a noun or pronoun. a tree the school any ones Nouns A noun is a word depicting a person, place, thing or idea. Tom London rock happiness Any nominal functions as a noun phrase, and can replace a noun phrase. Pronouns A pronoun is a word which substitutes for any other nominal. he she they All pronouns have antecedents. An antecedent is the nominal substituted with a pronoun. John, who won the race, is here. The pronoun is 'who'. Its antecedent is 'John'. Possessive Nouns and Pronouns A noun or pronoun can precede a noun, indicating possession. Tom’s bike his book his books Possessive nouns and pronouns function as adjectives, and also introduce. Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a head word called a preposition, followed by a nominal. [in] the car A prepositional phrase can modify a noun, a pronoun and a verb. Noun modifier: The man [with the big nose] arrived. Pronoun modifier: All [of the men] arrived. Verb modifier: The man ran [down the road]. Cascading Prepositional Phrases The man [with the car [in the driveway]] is here. Prepositional Phrases 1. Adjective prepositional phrase 2. Adverb prepositional phrase List of Prepositions about above across after against along among around as at before behind below beneath beside between by down during except for from in inside instead into like near of off on onto out outside over past since through to toward under until up upon with within without Complements A complement is a word or phrase which is necessary to complete a sentence. Tom threw. This sentence has a subject nominal (Tom) and a predicate verb phrase (threw). Yet, the sentence is incomplete. To help the sentence to make sense, something must be added. Tom threw the ball. This sentence now makes sense, because we have added a complement. [the ball] Complements are conditional. Tom laughed. This sentence does not need a complement, and makes sense as is. Nouns, pronouns and verbs may use complements, prepositions and infinitives always have complements. These complements are a form of modifier. Subject nominal and predicate verb phrase complement one-another. Noun and Pronoun Complements Some adjectives complement a singular noun or pronoun. a tree trees the one ones Implied Noun The (set of) trees Verb Complements Some adverbs complement a verb. Some head verbs must have a complement. throw kick want These verbs are called transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs do not need a complement. arrive sneeze sit A verb complement will be a nominal [the ball], functioning as an adverb, and is called a direct object. Some verb complements are followed by adverbial prepositional phrases. Tom threw the ball [to me]. The adverbial prepositional phrase may be shortened and moved to the left of the direct object. Tom threw me the ball. Tom gave him the book. This is now called an indirect object, and has become a nominal (formerly the prepositional phrase nominal). Tom did a favor for me. Tom did me a favor. The class elected the president as Tom. The class elected Tom the president. Indirect objects are not complements. All linking verbs are intransitive. Participles can be transitive. Tom is [throwing the ball]. Objects A nominal which is not the subject nominal is called an object nominal. A preposition complement is a nominal, and together make a prepositional phrase. Preposition + nominal [in] [the park] Any nominal can be the subject nominal, or an object nominal. There are 3 types of object nominals. 1. Direct object nominal 2. Indirect object nominal 3. Preposition nominal (called the prepositional object). These three objects are modifiers. The direct object modifies and complements the head verb. The indirect object modifies the head verb. The prepositional object modifies and complements a preposition. Adjectivals Adjectivals are pre-modifiers or post-modifiers or across a linking verb. An adjective may use an enhancer. [very] big A participle adjective may use an adverb. [quickly] running There are 4 types of adjectivals. 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals 1. Adjective Tom is [very happy]. Tom[, very happy,] arrived. [Very happy,] Tom arrived. The [very happy] man arrived. 2. Adjective prepositional phrase Tom is [in the car]. Tom[, in the car,] arrived. [As President,] Tom spoke first. 3. Adjective past participle phrase The ball is [thrown by me] The ball[, thrown by me,] flew far. The [thrown] ball flew far. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. 4. Adjective nominals Any nominal can function as an adjective, and modify another nominal. There are 5 types of nominals. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause As adjectivals, 1. Tom is [a busy man]. Tom[, a busy man,] arrived. [A busy man,] Tom was never late. 2. Tom is [one of the students]. Tom[, one of the students,] arrived. 3. Tom is [running down the field]. Tom[, running down the field,] arrived. The [quickly running] man arrived. [Quickly running,] Tom arrived. 4. The plan is [to enjoy our vacation]. The plan[, to enjoy our vacation,] is a good one. 5. The truth is [what I heard]. The truth[, what I heard,] makes sense. Adjective noun clauses are simply called adjective clauses. A nominal and its adjective clause can be inverted. What I heard, the truth, makes sense. Confusion about Adjectivals and Adverbials [Quickly running,] Tom took the ball in. [Quickly running,] the quarterback took the ball in. In the first sentence, the modifier can modify at least the nominal. Therefore, is an adjectival. Tom[, quickly running,] took the ball in. In the second sentence, the modifier cannot be an adjectival, because a pre-modifying adjectival cannot exist outside of a noun and its introducer. The [quickly running] quarterback took the ball in. The quarterback [,quickly running,] took the ball in. Therefore, is an adverbial. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase begins with the infinitive head word ‘to’, followed by its complement, a verb phrase. The verb phrase is a subset of the verb class, and like a participle phrase, is subject to all the verb phrase rules. to + [verb phrase] to drive the car to follow the leader to be or not to be Infinitive phrases can function as adjectives, and other functions within a sentence. They can function as subject nominals (or any nominals). [To win] serves our purpose. They can function as adverbials. Tom quickly shouted [to warn us]. Participle verb phrases and infinitive verb phrases are called non-finite verb phrases, because they have no subject nominal (with the exception of past-tense finite participle phrases). Tom has thrown the ball. Tom has been sad. A finite verb phrase always has a subject nominal as complement. Present participle phrases and infinitive phrases are interchangeable. (functioning as noun) [Walking in the park] makes me happy. [To walk in the park] makes me happy. (functioning as adjective) Tom is [going next]. Tom is [to go next]. (functioning as adverb) [Beginning promptly,] the boy started his task. [To begin promptly,] the boy started his task. However, do not be deceived. 'Walking in the park' and 'To walk in the park' have two different meanings. Prepositions and infinitives are grammatical head words, followed by their complements. Preposition + complement Infinitive + complement These complements are a form of modifier. Head verbs in infinitive verb phrases are base verbs with no inflections, auxiliary verbs are not used. [To quickly throw the ball] wins the game. Cascading Infinitive Phrases I am going [to need [to rest]] soon. Infinitive Phrases 1. Adjective infinitive phrase 2. Noun infinitive phrase 3. Adverb infinitive phrase Noun Clauses A noun clause is a dependent clause which functions as a noun phrase. It may be the subject nominal or any object nominal. A noun clause possesses a subordinator word. Noun clause as subject [(How) the team plays] will make a difference. As objects Direct object (complement) I asked [(why) he was late]. Indirect object (modifier) Tom gave [(what) you said] some thought. Prepositional object (complement) Much of [(what) he said] is true. When a noun clause is a complement, it is an essential part of its parent clause, and is embedded within it (not just tacked on). Adjective Clauses (noun clauses functioning as adjectives) An adjective clause is a dependent clause which modifies a nominal. An adjective clause always contains a subordinator word. The subordinator word can be a pronoun, or an adverb. The subordinator word is always within the adjective clause. Meaning, the subordinator links to, and is part of, the dependent clause. Tom[, who won the race,] is there. The pronoun subordinator, (who), links the dependent adjective clause to the parent sentence, and also serves as the dependent clause subject pronoun. The pronoun subordinator can be subject pronoun or any object pronoun in the dependent clause. Subject pronoun (who) won the race Direct object (whom) I’ve met (I’ve met whom) Indirect object to (whom) I threw the ball (I threw the ball to whom) (I threw whom the ball) Possessive pronoun (whose) car is parked outside Prepositional object to (whom) I am addressing (I am addressing to whom) Adverb subordinators for adjective clauses also link to, and are members of the adjective clauses. The day [(when) I retire (I retire when)] is soon. An adjective clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical (who) threw the ball Linking (who) is reading A linking adjective clause can be reduced. who is [adjectival] We may reduce the clause to [adjectival]. Example: Tom[, who is running for President,] spoke. Tom[, running for President,] spoke. Reduced Adjective Clauses Reducing an adjective clause can be done if the adjective clause is a linking-verb clause. Tom[, who was happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, who is in the car,] waved. Tom[, in the car,] waved. Tom[, who is the President,] spoke first. Tom[, the President,] spoke first. Tom[, who is he who won,] cheered. Tom[, he who won,] cheered. Tom[, who was running down the road,] waved. Tom[, running down the road,] waved. Tom[, who is to try next,] rested. Tom[, to try next,] rested. The idea[, which is that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, we should all help,] is a good one. If a reduced adjective clause becomes a nominal, it is called an appositive. A nominal and its reduced adjective clause can be inverted. Happy about the news, Tom cheered. In the car, Tom waved. The President, Tom, spoke first. He who won, Tom, cheered. Running down the road, Tom waved. To try next, Tom rested. That we should all help, the idea is a good one. Adverbials Any adverbial is very mobile, and can be moved around the sentence. [Quickly,] Tom ran across the room. Tom [quickly] ran across the room. Tom ran [quickly] across the room. Tom ran across the room [quickly]. An adverbial can be said, therefore, to be a sentence modifier. If a modifier can be moved around, it must be an adverbial. If it cannot well, it must be an adjectival. There are 5 types of adverbials. 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals 5. Adverb clause 1. Adverb Tom ran [very quickly]. 2. Adverb prepositional phrase Tom sang [on the stage]. 3. Adverb past participle phrase [Flown often,] the kite is our favorite toy. 4. Adverb nominals [A quick thinker,] the student caught the vase. [One who cares,] the nurse stayed with the disabled woman. [Quickly running,] the boy made it to class. [To be sure,] it is better to be silent. [What is true,] the King prefers a small ceremony. 5. Adverb clause The subordinator is always first, and is outside the dependent clause. [(Because) he is captain,] Tom gets first preference. Tom[, (because) he is captain,] gets first preference. Tom gets first preference [(because) he is captain]. An adverb clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical after I drove the car Linking until I was reading Adverb clauses can be reduced if they use linking verbs. Examples: [Though he was happy,] [Though happy,] [When he was in the car,] [When in the car,] [As he was President,] [As President,] [As Tom was he who won,] [As he who won,] [When he was running,] [When running,] [As he is to try next,] [As to try next,] Some adverb clauses reduce to adverbial prepositional phrases. As he is President, As President, There are no hard and fast rules about which words or how many words may be removed from a clause to reduce it. There should be a sensible balance between brevity and clarity. Watch for confusion with reduced clauses. When washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven(?) When it was washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven. Covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway(?) As it was covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway. Reduced modifying clauses and modifying phrases may conflict with one-another. The table with the vase near the door is green. The table near the door with the vase is green. Is the table or the vase near the door? Does the table or the door have a vase? The solution is: The table with the vase and near the door is green. Modifiers An adverbial can modify an entire sentence. A linking-verb sentence can use adverbials. Tom is happy [to be here]. Tom is running [down the road]. In this sentence, Tom, happy to be here, cheered. the adverbial [to be here] modifies the reduced adjective clause. who is happy Complements [nominal] is [adjectival] This adjectival is called the subject complement. It modifies, yet is essential to the sentence. This is true of all complements. The subject complement is not to be confused with the subject nominal complement (is). Note that the adjectival modifies the entire nominal. Examples: [To win the game] is [great]. [Winning the game] is [great]. [How Tom plays] is [great]. Emphasis Placing an adverb up front provides emphasis for that word. Now he tells me! Off we go! Verb Aspects (in active voice) There are four present-tense verb aspects, and three tenses, for a total of twelve aspects. An aspect gives a sentence a proper relation with time. 1. Simple 2. Perfect 3. Progressive 4. Perfect progressive A sentence’s relation with time determines which verb train is appropriate. 1. Simple A simple event is a singular event. Past: I [threw] the ball. Present: I [throw] the ball. Future: I [will throw] the ball. 2. Perfect A singular event which occurs before another singular event. Past: I [had thrown] the ball when the bell rang. Present: I [have thrown] the ball (before now). Future: I [will have thrown] the ball when the bell rings. 3. Progressive An ongoing event occurring through another event. Past: I [was] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [am] writing my letter. Future: I [will be] writing my letter when the bell rings. 4. Perfect progressive An ongoing event occurring up to a singular event. Past: I [had been] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [have been] writing my letter for 1 hour. Future: I [will have been] writing my letter when the bell rings. Note that in progressive and perfect-progressive aspects, [linking-verb train] + [any adjectivals except past-tense participles] In passive voice, Simple Past: The ball was thrown by me. Present: The ball is thrown by me. Future: The ball will be thrown by me. Perfect Past: The ball had been thrown by me when the bell rang. Present: The ball has been thrown by me. Future: The ball will have been thrown by me when the bell rings. Progressive Past: My letter was being written by me when the bell rang. Present: My letter is being written by me. Future: none Perfect progressive Past: none Present: none Future: none It is awkward and unacceptable to use passive voice with the remaining aspects. My letter will have been being written by me when the bell rings. When changing an active voice sentence to passive voice, keep the aspect the same. Conjunctions If two sentences are joined, and they can be reversed without loss of meaning, the conjunction is a coordinator. I was reading [and] John was writing. John was writing [and] I was reading. Otherwise, the conjunction is a subordinator. Subordinators Sentences using subordinators are called complex sentences. Sentences using coordinators and subordinators are called compound-complex sentences. Adjective clause and noun clause subordinators are always within the clauses. Adverb clause subordinators are always outside the clauses. Adjective Clauses Pronoun subordinators Who whom whose which what These pronouns are called relative pronouns. Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. ‘Who’ refers to people. ‘Whom’ refers to people. ‘Whose’ refers to people. ‘Which’ refers to things. 'What' refers to things. John, who won the contest, cheered. Bill, to whom I gave the book, thanked me. Tom, whose car is red, arrived. The tree, which was quite tall, finally fell. The game, what happened yesterday, was won. Pronoun subordinators link to and are part of the dependent clause. ‘who won the contest’ is a complete sentence. ‘to whom I gave the book’ (I gave the book to whom) is a complete sentence. ‘whose car is red’ is a complete sentence. ‘which was quite tall’ is a complete sentence. 'what happened yesterday' is a complete sentence. The subordinator pronoun can be subject or any object in the dependent clause. As subject who won the contest As direct object whom I've seen (I've seen whom) As indirect object to whom I gave the book (I gave whom the book) As prepositional object to whom I pointed (I pointed to whom) As possessive pronoun whose car is red An adjective clause can modify subject nominal or any object nominal in an independent clause. Subject modifier Tom, who won the contest, cheered. Direct object modifier Tom won the contest, which was difficult. Indirect object modifier Tom gave me, who thanked him, the book. Prepositional object modifier The team played in the park, which is near the school. The modified nominal is the subordinator's antecedent. [Tom], (who) won the contest, cheered. Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses Some adjective clauses help to identify the antecedent. The man who protested left the room. These clauses are not separated with commas. Some adjective clauses are unnecessary. They are separated with commas. Tom, who won the race, visited me. Who and Whom These pronouns are used as subordinators in different ways. ‘who’ is used as subject pronoun. ‘whom’ is used as any object pronoun. Which This subordinator can be used to introduce modification for an entire sentence. John can’t swim, which surprised me. Relative Adverb Subordinators are also part of the dependent clauses. when where why how Next year, when I graduate (I graduate when), I will be ready for success. London, where I work (I work where), lies west. The reason why he came (he came why) is clear. The train, how I travel (I travel how), arrives early. Note that these adverbs have antecedents. [Next year], (when) I graduate, Reducing Adjective Clauses A linking adjective clause can be reduced by omitting the subject subordinator pronoun and the linking verb. Tom, who is the President, arrived. Tom, the President, arrived. Reduced adjective clauses which end up as nominals are called appositives. Preposition Stranding Right: [to] whom I gave the book Wrong: whom I gave the book [to] A possessive noun can be an antecedent. The victory was due to Tom’s, who was quarterback, resolve. Noun Clauses Subordinators are same as adjective clauses. who whom what which whose when why how where Noun clauses can substitute for any nominals. Subject [What he said] worried me. Direct object I wonder [why he is attending]. Indirect object Tom gave [what he said] some thought. Prepositional object Tom talked about [which plan is best]. Noun clause or adjective clause? [What Tom said] worried me. The message[, what Tom said,] worried me. The message is [what Tom said]. Noun clauses and adjective clauses are identical. Their role depends on their place in a sentence. This is true because a nominal (noun clause) can function as an adjectival (adjective clause). Note that all noun clause subordinators ask a question. who? whom? what? where? which? whose? when? why? how? Their answers may substitute for the dependent clauses. As adjective clause subordinators, their answers are their antecedents. The message worried me. What Tom said worried me. The message, what Tom said, worried me. Adverb Clauses Adverb clause subordinators are always at the beginning of the dependent clauses, and are not a part of the clause-sentences. Subordinator + clause sentence (As) I am President, Adverb clauses can be reduced. As President, Any adverbial can be at several locations within a sentence. Quickly the big man with the cigar had fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had quickly fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had fled the scene quickly. Adverbials cannot exist immediately before a verb train, but may exist immediately before a head verb. Adverbial Subordinators after although anytime anywhere as as far as as long as as near as as often as as soon as as if as though because before even if even though for if like once since so so that than that though unless until when while Trailing Subordinators [I’m so tired (that)] I will retire. (That I’m so tired, I will retire.) Adjective clause or adverb clause? Remember, an adverb clause can be moved around. Also, an adjective clause subordinator has an antecedent. Tom, when he tries, wins. Tomorrow, when I go to school, will be a sunny day. Conditional Statements If [sentence 1] then [sentence 2]. If Tom tries then he will win. Conditional statements are used in the mathematics of logical thinking. If I study then I will pass. If I pass then I will succeed. If I succeed then I will make money. Therefore, If I study then I will make money. Adverb clauses [If I study then,] I will make money. Reduced, [If I study,] I will make money. [Had I studied,] I would have passed. (Argument ) (Premise )(Conclusion ) [If I study,][I will make money.] Adverbial subordinators are conditional subordinators. After I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [Tom gave his speech] then [I have arrived].) Before I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [I arrived] then [Tom gave his speech].) Adverbial prepositional phrases are also conditional. As President, Tom spoke first. (If [Tom spoke first] then [he is President].) Actually, all adverbials are conditional. If/then statements can be transposed. IfA thenB = notA or B. Example: If I study, I will make money. = I will not study or I will make money. This transposition is important when you study Propositional Logic. Propositional Logic is the mathematic study of logical text. Absolute Phrases An absolute phrase is really a reduced adverb clause of sorts. It applies a past or present participle. (As) our car (was) [having] (that which had) developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. Our car having developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. (As I was) [having] (the fact that I) entered the building, I went to class. Having entered the building, I went to class. (As) his arms (were) [filled] with books, he could not sit down. His arms filled with books, he could not sit down. Conjunctive Adverbs Two clauses can be linked with conjunctive adverbs. The first clause ends with a period (.) or a semicolon (;) The man refused to comply. [As a result,] he was arrested. Because a conjunctive adverb is an adverb, it can be moved around in a sentence. The man refused to comply. He[, as a result,] was arrested. Conjunctive Adverbs accordingly again also as a result besides consequently finally for example further furthermore hence however in addition in contrast indeed in fact in particular instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless of course otherwise that is then therefore though thus yet This sentence is incorrect. Tom won the race, and therefore got the prize. This is correct. Tom won the race. Therefore, got the prize. Conjunctive adverbs are conditional subordinators. The man refused to comply. As a result, he was arrested. (If [the man was arrested] then [he refused to comply].) Meanwhile, (being) back at the Ranch, [conjunctive adverb][absolute phrase ] [verb ][direct object][prepositional phrase] Fourth Dependent Clause Type ‘That’ and ‘which’ can have entire sentences as their antecedents. The sewerage system overflowed at school. That was disgusting. The sewerage system overflowed at school, which was disgusting. Sentence Insertion Pronoun + antecedent sentence Tom was late. That worried me. That [Tom was late] worried me. The fact (which is) that [Tom was late] worried me. The pronoun (that) serves as the subordinator, also introducing the inserted clause. That [SENTENCE] Inserted clauses are also called that-clauses. Therefore, there are 6 nominals. 1. noun phrase 2. pronoun phrase 3. present participle phrase 4. infinitive phrase 5. noun clause 6. that-clause Adjective that-clause It is [true that people like cats]. It [,that people like cats,] is true. That-clause as subject [That Tom was late] worried me. As direct object I ask [that the class will listen]. Often the subordinator is omitted. I think (that) I will retire. The pronoun ‘what’ can be a nominal-inserter. The ‘inserted nominal’ is actually a reduced adjective clause, or appositive. Tom thought about what [to do next]. What a great player he is! He is what [a great player]! What is Tom doing hiding under his desk? Tom is doing what [hiding under his desk]. What he had to work with was scanty. He had what [to work with ] was scanty. [noun clause ][linking verb][adjective] [infinitive + phrasal verb] A bit of etiquette Wrong: This is John. Right: He is John. Literary Devices Sentence Inversions Grammar is the study of word class and function. Syntax is the study of sentence structure. Clefting It-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. It is Tom who went to the movie yesterday. It was to the movie where Tom went yesterday. It was yesterday when Tom went to the movie. Wh-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. What Tom did was to go to the movie yesterday. Tom saw Bill. Who Tom saw was Bill. Tom went to the classroom. Where Tom went was to the classroom. When Why How Cleft Inversion Tom needs a pen. What Tom needs is a pen. A pen is what Tom needs. Grammatical Patterns Basic Tom threw the ball suddenly. Passive The ball was suddenly thrown by Tom. Leading adverb Suddenly, the ball was thrown by Tom. It-cleft It is Tom who suddenly threw the ball. Wh-cleft What Tom did was to suddenly throw the ball. Dislocation using anticipatory it, they, there, them, with appositive relocation. (given) A very large storage container from an unknown source was dropped off in front of our house. (step 1) It [,a very large storage container from an unknown source,] was dropped off in front of our house. (step 2) It was dropped off in front of our house[, a very large storage container from an unknown source]. Tom threw the ball quickly. Tom threw it, the ball, quickly. Tom threw it quickly, the ball. I weeded the garden. I weeded it, the garden. The garden, I weeded it. Walking in the park is fun. It, walking in the park, is fun. It is fun, walking in the park. What Tom said worried me. It, what Tom said, worried me. It worried me, what Tom said. That is true. That Tom won the contest is true. It, that Tom won the contest, is true. It is true, that Tom won the contest. Spring blossoms smell wonderful. They, spring blossoms, smell wonderful. They smell wonderful, spring blossoms. Trees were everywhere. Trees were there, everywhere. There were trees, everywhere. I gave the books to George. I gave them, the books, to George. The books, I gave them to George. Fronting [adjectival] is [nominal] Happy is Johnathan. Fastened to the wall was a telephone. In the road was a large puddle. [adjectival][nominal] is Huge it was [adverbial][verb][noun] Before the marching soldiers were flung baskets of flower petals. Yesterday came a ferocious storm. Suddenly came the flight of the cranes. [adverbial][auxiliary][noun][verb] Never have I seen a more welcome sight. [direct object][noun][verb] Wise he had become over the years. Why she married him I really don’t know. [phrasal verb inverted][noun] Out jumped the frog from the reeds. End Weight Shift longest element to the end of the sentence. If subject is longest, (given) The prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts is favorable. (improved) It is favorable, the prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts. If direct object is longest, (given) Tom provided a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution for the assembly. (improved) Tom provided for the assembly a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution. (given) Sarah gave the most wonderful gift to Jude. (improved) Sarah gave to Jude the most wonderful gift. If conjunctions are used, longest element last. (given) Tom repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges and washed the car. (improved) Tom washed the car and repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges. If adjectival is longest, (given) Someone who says they’ve known you for years called me up. (improved) Someone called me up who says they’ve known you for years.

English Linguistics There are 8 word classes. 1. nouns 5. adverbs 2. pronouns 6. prepositions 3. verbs 7. infinitives 4. adjectives 8. conjunctions A sentence, or clause, possesses 1. Subject nominal 2. Predicate verb phrase All in a sentence will belong to either. Nominal Group 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause Therefore, a sentence will possess one of these combinations. 1. Subject noun phrase and predicate verb phrase 2. Subject pronoun phrase and predicate verb phrase 3. Subject present participle phrase and predicate verb phrase 4. Subject infinitive phrase and predicate verb phrase 5. Subject noun clause and predicate verb phrase The subject is what the sentence is about. The predicate is what the subject is doing. The predicate verb phrase is also called a finite verb phrase. Phrases A phrase possesses 1. Head word 2. Modifiers There are 5 phrase types. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Verb phrase 4. Prepositional phrase 5. Infinitive phrase There are 5 head word types. 1. Nouns 2. Pronouns 3. Verbs 4. Prepositions 5. Infinitives A participle is a type of verb, and a participle phrase is a type of verb phrase. Examples: [throwing] the ball has [thrown] the ball Examples of Phrases 1. Noun phrase the big [man] with the cigar 2. Pronoun phrase [he] who enters [all] of the men 3. Verb phrase quickly [threw] the ball down the street 4. Prepositional phrase [in] the car 5. Infinitive phrase [to] stress his point There are 2 clause types. 1. Independent clause 2. Dependent clause A dependent clause, like it’s name, depends on an independent clause for its existence. A dependent clause links to an independent clause with a word called a subordinator. Example: [What Tom said] worried me. The dependent clause is the sentence What Tom said (Tom said what). The subordinator is the word (what). The dependent clause is embedded (nested) within the independent clause and functions, in this case, as its subject nominal. There are 3 dependent clause types. 1. Noun clause 2. Adjective clause 3. Adverb clause Modifiers There are 2 modifier types. 1. Adjectivals 2. Adverbials Adjectivals modify nominals. Adverbials modify verbs. Some modifiers are pre-modifiers and some are post-modifiers. Meaning, some modifiers occur before their head word and some occur after their head word. Modifiers are not essential to a sentence, unless they are complements. Otherwise, if they were removed from a sentence, the sentence would still make sense. They only provide extra information. A complement is a special type of modifier which is essential. Adjectivals 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals Adjective noun phrase Adjective pronoun phrase Adjective present participle phrase Adjective infinitive phrase Adjective noun clause (or adjective clause) Adverbials 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals Adverb noun phrase Adverb pronoun phrase Adverb present participle phrase Adverb infinitive phrase Adverb noun clause 5. Adverb clause In all, the set of modifiers is 1. adjectives, adverbs 2. adjective/adverb prepositional phrases 3. adjective/adverb past participle phrases 4. adjective/adverb nominals 5. adverb clauses There are also preposition and infinitive modifiers which are preposition + noun phrase infinitive + verb phrase Lexical words are words which inspire the imagination. tree run big quick Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and some verbs are lexical. Lexical word classes are open classes. Meaning, new words are being added periodically. Pronouns, prepositions and infinitives are called grammatical head words, and are closed-class. Class and Function A phrase of a particular class may function as a different class. For example, a noun phrase may function as an adjective John[, a busy man,] arrived. or an adverb. John threw [the ball]. [ A quick thinker,] the student caught the falling vase. A present participle phrase, while being a verb phrase, can function as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase. Examples: Tom[, running down the field,] threw the ball. [Running quickly,] the student got to class on time. [Going to the park] is fun. Verbs Head Verb Train A head verb is actually a head verb train. There is a modal auxiliary verb, followed by a perfect auxiliary verb, followed by the head verb. Modal auxiliary + perfect auxiliary + head verb Examples: will have played had run will go threw The auxiliary verbs are conditional, and depend on the time-reference of the sentence. The time-reference is called the aspect of the sentence. Time-references There are 12 aspects. 1. Past simple 2. Present simple 3. Future simple 4. Past perfect simple 5. Present perfect simple 6. Future perfect simple 7. Past progressive 8. Present progressive 9. Future progressive 10. Past perfect progressive 11. Present perfect progressive 12. Future perfect progressive Simple aspects refer to singular events. Progressive aspects refer to on-going or periodic events. There are 9 modal auxiliary verbs. can could may might will would shall should must There are 3 perfect auxiliary verbs. have has had The choice of modal and perfect auxiliary verbs, along with the head verb, will determine the time-relationship of the sentence. Example: I will have been writing The head verb is ‘been‘. (‘writing’ is a participle adjective) The verb train ‘will have been’ refers to a future perfect progressive event. This event is one in which action will take place up to a certain future event. I will have been writing my letter when school lets out. Modal auxiliary verbs are also called 'future' auxiliary verbs, because they are only used in future aspects. Linking Head Verbs Some head verbs depict action. run play climb Other head verbs depict a linking effect. Tom [is] a man. Tom [is] happy. Tom [is] in the car. On one side of a linking verb will be a nominal. On the other side will be an adjectival, which modifies the nominal. [nominal] is [adjectival] The nominal, and its adjectival, are the total subject nominal. The predicate verb phrase is [linking verb + any adverbials]. Tom [is] happy [to be here]. Linking-verb Trains John ( ) happy. Any verb train which satisfies this sentence qualifies as a 'linking-verb train'. John is happy. John seems happy. John will be happy. John has been happy. John looks happy. Watch for this trap. Noun + linking verb + adjective John acts happy. Noun + lexical verb + adverb John acts happily. Linking verbs are grammatical head verbs and are closed-class. List of Linking Head Verbs was were is am are been be seemed appeared acted seem appear act seems appears acts looked sounded felt tasted smelled look sound feel taste smell looks sounds feels tastes smells Watch for this trap. John has been happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Happy’ is an adjective. John has been feeling happy. ‘Been’ is the linking head verb. ‘Feeling’ is a participle adjective. ‘Happy’ is an adverb modifying the participle verb ‘feeling’. Inflections A base word is a word without inflection. There are 3 ways of inflecting a base word. 1. Prefix A prefix is an addition to the front of a base word. form reform 2. Suffix A suffix is an addition to the back of a base word. form forming Prefixes and suffixes are called affixes. Both may be added. reforming 3. Mutation A mutation is a change of the base word. goose geese Inflections provide information about sentence tense and number. Tense There are 3 tenses. Past Present Future Future tense always uses a modal auxiliary verb, and a present or past-tense form of head verb. (modal) + have + … will write will have written Person There are 3 persons. First (me) second (you) and third (them) Number There are 2 numbers. Singular (he) and plural (they) Sentence Agreement Subject noun may be inflected, and predicate verb may be inflected. Both must agree about number. A tree grows. Trees grow. Auxiliary verbs must agree about tense, person and number. We have arrived. We had arrived. You have arrived. He has arrived. They have arrived. Verb Conjugation A head verb may inflect, and assume various auxiliary verbs, to agree with sentence aspect, tense, person and number. This is verb conjugation. Participles There are present-tense and past-tense participles. A verb with an ‘ing’ suffix functions as a present-tense participle. run running The [running] man arrived. Past-tense participles may use a suffix or be mutated. The [battered] shed was torn down. The [flown] kite has landed. Any verb immediately following a perfect auxiliary verb must be a finite linking past-tense participle head verb I (have been) sad. or, a finite lexical past-tense participle head verb. I (have flown) my kite. Any verb immediately following a linking-verb train must be a participle adjective. The kite (has been) flying. The kite (has been) flown. The kite (is) flying. The kite (was) flown. Present-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [running] man arrived. The man[, running down the road,] arrived. The man is [running down the road]. [Running quickly,] Tom made it to class on time. or nominals [Running] is fun. [Walking in the park] is relaxing. or adverbs. [Expecting success,] the student studied carefully. Past-tense participle phrases function as adjectives The [flown] kite has landed. The kite[, flown earlier,] has landed. The kite was [flown yesterday]. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. or finite verb phrases I [have flown my kite]. I [have been] sad. or adverbs. [Drawn into war,] the country prepared itself. Even though a participle phrase is functioning as an adjective, adverb or a noun phrase, it is still classified as a verb phrase, and is subject to all the verb-phrase rules. It may have verb modifiers (adverbials). [casually walking in the park] [carefully drawn on paper] Participle Phrases 1. Adjective participle phrase (past and present) 2. Noun participle phrase (present) 3. Adverb participle phrase (past and present) 4. Finite verb participle phrase (past) Lexical Head Verbs There are 2 types of lexical head verbs. All other verbs are linking or auxiliary verbs and are closed-class. 1. Action 2. Stative Action verbs depict physical action. run jump Stative verbs depict mental action. agree imagine promise Some adjectives introduce a noun or pronoun. a tree the school any ones Nouns A noun is a word depicting a person, place, thing or idea. Tom London rock happiness Any nominal functions as a noun phrase, and can replace a noun phrase. Pronouns A pronoun is a word which substitutes for any other nominal. he she they All pronouns have antecedents. An antecedent is the nominal substituted with a pronoun. John, who won the race, is here. The pronoun is 'who'. Its antecedent is 'John'. Possessive Nouns and Pronouns A noun or pronoun can precede a noun, indicating possession. Tom’s bike his book his books Possessive nouns and pronouns function as adjectives, and also introduce. Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a head word called a preposition, followed by a nominal. [in] the car A prepositional phrase can modify a noun, a pronoun and a verb. Noun modifier: The man [with the big nose] arrived. Pronoun modifier: All [of the men] arrived. Verb modifier: The man ran [down the road]. Cascading Prepositional Phrases The man [with the car [in the driveway]] is here. Prepositional Phrases 1. Adjective prepositional phrase 2. Adverb prepositional phrase List of Prepositions about above across after against along among around as at before behind below beneath beside between by down during except for from in inside instead into like near of off on onto out outside over past since through to toward under until up upon with within without Complements A complement is a word or phrase which is necessary to complete a sentence. Tom threw. This sentence has a subject nominal (Tom) and a predicate verb phrase (threw). Yet, the sentence is incomplete. To help the sentence to make sense, something must be added. Tom threw the ball. This sentence now makes sense, because we have added a complement. [the ball] Complements are conditional. Tom laughed. This sentence does not need a complement, and makes sense as is. Nouns, pronouns and verbs may use complements, prepositions and infinitives always have complements. These complements are a form of modifier. Subject nominal and predicate verb phrase complement one-another. Noun and Pronoun Complements Some adjectives complement a singular noun or pronoun. a tree trees the one ones Implied Noun The (set of) trees Verb Complements Some adverbs complement a verb. Some head verbs must have a complement. throw kick want These verbs are called transitive verbs. Intransitive verbs do not need a complement. arrive sneeze sit A verb complement will be a nominal [the ball], functioning as an adverb, and is called a direct object. Some verb complements are followed by adverbial prepositional phrases. Tom threw the ball [to me]. The adverbial prepositional phrase may be shortened and moved to the left of the direct object. Tom threw me the ball. Tom gave him the book. This is now called an indirect object, and has become a nominal (formerly the prepositional phrase nominal). Tom did a favor for me. Tom did me a favor. The class elected the president as Tom. The class elected Tom the president. Indirect objects are not complements. All linking verbs are intransitive. Participles can be transitive. Tom is [throwing the ball]. Objects A nominal which is not the subject nominal is called an object nominal. A preposition complement is a nominal, and together make a prepositional phrase. Preposition + nominal [in] [the park] Any nominal can be the subject nominal, or an object nominal. There are 3 types of object nominals. 1. Direct object nominal 2. Indirect object nominal 3. Preposition nominal (called the prepositional object). These three objects are modifiers. The direct object modifies and complements the head verb. The indirect object modifies the head verb. The prepositional object modifies and complements a preposition. Adjectivals Adjectivals are pre-modifiers or post-modifiers or across a linking verb. An adjective may use an enhancer. [very] big A participle adjective may use an adverb. [quickly] running There are 4 types of adjectivals. 1. Adjective 2. Adjective prepositional phrase 3. Adjective past participle phrase 4. Adjective nominals 1. Adjective Tom is [very happy]. Tom[, very happy,] arrived. [Very happy,] Tom arrived. The [very happy] man arrived. 2. Adjective prepositional phrase Tom is [in the car]. Tom[, in the car,] arrived. [As President,] Tom spoke first. 3. Adjective past participle phrase The ball is [thrown by me] The ball[, thrown by me,] flew far. The [thrown] ball flew far. [Drawn into war,] England prepared herself. 4. Adjective nominals Any nominal can function as an adjective, and modify another nominal. There are 5 types of nominals. 1. Noun phrase 2. Pronoun phrase 3. Present participle phrase 4. Infinitive phrase 5. Noun clause As adjectivals, 1. Tom is [a busy man]. Tom[, a busy man,] arrived. [A busy man,] Tom was never late. 2. Tom is [one of the students]. Tom[, one of the students,] arrived. 3. Tom is [running down the field]. Tom[, running down the field,] arrived. The [quickly running] man arrived. [Quickly running,] Tom arrived. 4. The plan is [to enjoy our vacation]. The plan[, to enjoy our vacation,] is a good one. 5. The truth is [what I heard]. The truth[, what I heard,] makes sense. Adjective noun clauses are simply called adjective clauses. A nominal and its adjective clause can be inverted. What I heard, the truth, makes sense. Confusion about Adjectivals and Adverbials [Quickly running,] Tom took the ball in. [Quickly running,] the quarterback took the ball in. In the first sentence, the modifier can modify at least the nominal. Therefore, is an adjectival. Tom[, quickly running,] took the ball in. In the second sentence, the modifier cannot be an adjectival, because a pre-modifying adjectival cannot exist outside of a noun and its introducer. The [quickly running] quarterback took the ball in. The quarterback [,quickly running,] took the ball in. Therefore, is an adverbial. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase begins with the infinitive head word ‘to’, followed by its complement, a verb phrase. The verb phrase is a subset of the verb class, and like a participle phrase, is subject to all the verb phrase rules. to + [verb phrase] to drive the car to follow the leader to be or not to be Infinitive phrases can function as adjectives, and other functions within a sentence. They can function as subject nominals (or any nominals). [To win] serves our purpose. They can function as adverbials. Tom quickly shouted [to warn us]. Participle verb phrases and infinitive verb phrases are called non-finite verb phrases, because they have no subject nominal (with the exception of past-tense finite participle phrases). Tom has thrown the ball. Tom has been sad. A finite verb phrase always has a subject nominal as complement. Present participle phrases and infinitive phrases are interchangeable. (functioning as noun) [Walking in the park] makes me happy. [To walk in the park] makes me happy. (functioning as adjective) Tom is [going next]. Tom is [to go next]. (functioning as adverb) [Beginning promptly,] the boy started his task. [To begin promptly,] the boy started his task. However, do not be deceived. 'Walking in the park' and 'To walk in the park' have two different meanings. Prepositions and infinitives are grammatical head words, followed by their complements. Preposition + complement Infinitive + complement These complements are a form of modifier. Head verbs in infinitive verb phrases are base verbs with no inflections, auxiliary verbs are not used. [To quickly throw the ball] wins the game. Cascading Infinitive Phrases I am going [to need [to rest]] soon. Infinitive Phrases 1. Adjective infinitive phrase 2. Noun infinitive phrase 3. Adverb infinitive phrase Noun Clauses A noun clause is a dependent clause which functions as a noun phrase. It may be the subject nominal or any object nominal. A noun clause possesses a subordinator word. Noun clause as subject [(How) the team plays] will make a difference. As objects Direct object (complement) I asked [(why) he was late]. Indirect object (modifier) Tom gave [(what) you said] some thought. Prepositional object (complement) Much of [(what) he said] is true. When a noun clause is a complement, it is an essential part of its parent clause, and is embedded within it (not just tacked on). Adjective Clauses (noun clauses functioning as adjectives) An adjective clause is a dependent clause which modifies a nominal. An adjective clause always contains a subordinator word. The subordinator word can be a pronoun, or an adverb. The subordinator word is always within the adjective clause. Meaning, the subordinator links to, and is part of, the dependent clause. Tom[, who won the race,] is there. The pronoun subordinator, (who), links the dependent adjective clause to the parent sentence, and also serves as the dependent clause subject pronoun. The pronoun subordinator can be subject pronoun or any object pronoun in the dependent clause. Subject pronoun (who) won the race Direct object (whom) I’ve met (I’ve met whom) Indirect object to (whom) I threw the ball (I threw the ball to whom) (I threw whom the ball) Possessive pronoun (whose) car is parked outside Prepositional object to (whom) I am addressing (I am addressing to whom) Adverb subordinators for adjective clauses also link to, and are members of the adjective clauses. The day [(when) I retire (I retire when)] is soon. An adjective clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical (who) threw the ball Linking (who) is reading A linking adjective clause can be reduced. who is [adjectival] We may reduce the clause to [adjectival]. Example: Tom[, who is running for President,] spoke. Tom[, running for President,] spoke. Reduced Adjective Clauses Reducing an adjective clause can be done if the adjective clause is a linking-verb clause. Tom[, who was happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, happy about the news,] cheered. Tom[, who is in the car,] waved. Tom[, in the car,] waved. Tom[, who is the President,] spoke first. Tom[, the President,] spoke first. Tom[, who is he who won,] cheered. Tom[, he who won,] cheered. Tom[, who was running down the road,] waved. Tom[, running down the road,] waved. Tom[, who is to try next,] rested. Tom[, to try next,] rested. The idea[, which is that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, that we should all help,] is a good one. The idea[, we should all help,] is a good one. If a reduced adjective clause becomes a nominal, it is called an appositive. A nominal and its reduced adjective clause can be inverted. Happy about the news, Tom cheered. In the car, Tom waved. The President, Tom, spoke first. He who won, Tom, cheered. Running down the road, Tom waved. To try next, Tom rested. That we should all help, the idea is a good one. Adverbials Any adverbial is very mobile, and can be moved around the sentence. [Quickly,] Tom ran across the room. Tom [quickly] ran across the room. Tom ran [quickly] across the room. Tom ran across the room [quickly]. An adverbial can be said, therefore, to be a sentence modifier. If a modifier can be moved around, it must be an adverbial. If it cannot well, it must be an adjectival. There are 5 types of adverbials. 1. Adverb 2. Adverb prepositional phrase 3. Adverb past participle phrase 4. Adverb nominals 5. Adverb clause 1. Adverb Tom ran [very quickly]. 2. Adverb prepositional phrase Tom sang [on the stage]. 3. Adverb past participle phrase [Flown often,] the kite is our favorite toy. 4. Adverb nominals [A quick thinker,] the student caught the vase. [One who cares,] the nurse stayed with the disabled woman. [Quickly running,] the boy made it to class. [To be sure,] it is better to be silent. [What is true,] the King prefers a small ceremony. 5. Adverb clause The subordinator is always first, and is outside the dependent clause. [(Because) he is captain,] Tom gets first preference. Tom[, (because) he is captain,] gets first preference. Tom gets first preference [(because) he is captain]. An adverb clause can be lexical or linking. Lexical after I drove the car Linking until I was reading Adverb clauses can be reduced if they use linking verbs. Examples: [Though he was happy,] [Though happy,] [When he was in the car,] [When in the car,] [As he was President,] [As President,] [As Tom was he who won,] [As he who won,] [When he was running,] [When running,] [As he is to try next,] [As to try next,] Some adverb clauses reduce to adverbial prepositional phrases. As he is President, As President, There are no hard and fast rules about which words or how many words may be removed from a clause to reduce it. There should be a sensible balance between brevity and clarity. Watch for confusion with reduced clauses. When washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven(?) When it was washed, Mary put the turkey in the oven. Covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway(?) As it was covered with dust, Tom swept the walkway. Reduced modifying clauses and modifying phrases may conflict with one-another. The table with the vase near the door is green. The table near the door with the vase is green. Is the table or the vase near the door? Does the table or the door have a vase? The solution is: The table with the vase and near the door is green. Modifiers An adverbial can modify an entire sentence. A linking-verb sentence can use adverbials. Tom is happy [to be here]. Tom is running [down the road]. In this sentence, Tom, happy to be here, cheered. the adverbial [to be here] modifies the reduced adjective clause. who is happy Complements [nominal] is [adjectival] This adjectival is called the subject complement. It modifies, yet is essential to the sentence. This is true of all complements. The subject complement is not to be confused with the subject nominal complement (is). Note that the adjectival modifies the entire nominal. Examples: [To win the game] is [great]. [Winning the game] is [great]. [How Tom plays] is [great]. Emphasis Placing an adverb up front provides emphasis for that word. Now he tells me! Off we go! Verb Aspects (in active voice) There are four present-tense verb aspects, and three tenses, for a total of twelve aspects. An aspect gives a sentence a proper relation with time. 1. Simple 2. Perfect 3. Progressive 4. Perfect progressive A sentence’s relation with time determines which verb train is appropriate. 1. Simple A simple event is a singular event. Past: I [threw] the ball. Present: I [throw] the ball. Future: I [will throw] the ball. 2. Perfect A singular event which occurs before another singular event. Past: I [had thrown] the ball when the bell rang. Present: I [have thrown] the ball (before now). Future: I [will have thrown] the ball when the bell rings. 3. Progressive An ongoing event occurring through another event. Past: I [was] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [am] writing my letter. Future: I [will be] writing my letter when the bell rings. 4. Perfect progressive An ongoing event occurring up to a singular event. Past: I [had been] writing my letter when the bell rang. Present: I [have been] writing my letter for 1 hour. Future: I [will have been] writing my letter when the bell rings. Note that in progressive and perfect-progressive aspects, [linking-verb train] + [any adjectivals except past-tense participles] In passive voice, Simple Past: The ball was thrown by me. Present: The ball is thrown by me. Future: The ball will be thrown by me. Perfect Past: The ball had been thrown by me when the bell rang. Present: The ball has been thrown by me. Future: The ball will have been thrown by me when the bell rings. Progressive Past: My letter was being written by me when the bell rang. Present: My letter is being written by me. Future: none Perfect progressive Past: none Present: none Future: none It is awkward and unacceptable to use passive voice with the remaining aspects. My letter will have been being written by me when the bell rings. When changing an active voice sentence to passive voice, keep the aspect the same. Conjunctions If two sentences are joined, and they can be reversed without loss of meaning, the conjunction is a coordinator. I was reading [and] John was writing. John was writing [and] I was reading. Otherwise, the conjunction is a subordinator. Subordinators Sentences using subordinators are called complex sentences. Sentences using coordinators and subordinators are called compound-complex sentences. Adjective clause and noun clause subordinators are always within the clauses. Adverb clause subordinators are always outside the clauses. Adjective Clauses Pronoun subordinators Who whom whose which what These pronouns are called relative pronouns. Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses. ‘Who’ refers to people. ‘Whom’ refers to people. ‘Whose’ refers to people. ‘Which’ refers to things. 'What' refers to things. John, who won the contest, cheered. Bill, to whom I gave the book, thanked me. Tom, whose car is red, arrived. The tree, which was quite tall, finally fell. The game, what happened yesterday, was won. Pronoun subordinators link to and are part of the dependent clause. ‘who won the contest’ is a complete sentence. ‘to whom I gave the book’ (I gave the book to whom) is a complete sentence. ‘whose car is red’ is a complete sentence. ‘which was quite tall’ is a complete sentence. 'what happened yesterday' is a complete sentence. The subordinator pronoun can be subject or any object in the dependent clause. As subject who won the contest As direct object whom I've seen (I've seen whom) As indirect object to whom I gave the book (I gave whom the book) As prepositional object to whom I pointed (I pointed to whom) As possessive pronoun whose car is red An adjective clause can modify subject nominal or any object nominal in an independent clause. Subject modifier Tom, who won the contest, cheered. Direct object modifier Tom won the contest, which was difficult. Indirect object modifier Tom gave me, who thanked him, the book. Prepositional object modifier The team played in the park, which is near the school. The modified nominal is the subordinator's antecedent. [Tom], (who) won the contest, cheered. Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses Some adjective clauses help to identify the antecedent. The man who protested left the room. These clauses are not separated with commas. Some adjective clauses are unnecessary. They are separated with commas. Tom, who won the race, visited me. Who and Whom These pronouns are used as subordinators in different ways. ‘who’ is used as subject pronoun. ‘whom’ is used as any object pronoun. Which This subordinator can be used to introduce modification for an entire sentence. John can’t swim, which surprised me. Relative Adverb Subordinators are also part of the dependent clauses. when where why how Next year, when I graduate (I graduate when), I will be ready for success. London, where I work (I work where), lies west. The reason why he came (he came why) is clear. The train, how I travel (I travel how), arrives early. Note that these adverbs have antecedents. [Next year], (when) I graduate, Reducing Adjective Clauses A linking adjective clause can be reduced by omitting the subject subordinator pronoun and the linking verb. Tom, who is the President, arrived. Tom, the President, arrived. Reduced adjective clauses which end up as nominals are called appositives. Preposition Stranding Right: [to] whom I gave the book Wrong: whom I gave the book [to] A possessive noun can be an antecedent. The victory was due to Tom’s, who was quarterback, resolve. Noun Clauses Subordinators are same as adjective clauses. who whom what which whose when why how where Noun clauses can substitute for any nominals. Subject [What he said] worried me. Direct object I wonder [why he is attending]. Indirect object Tom gave [what he said] some thought. Prepositional object Tom talked about [which plan is best]. Noun clause or adjective clause? [What Tom said] worried me. The message[, what Tom said,] worried me. The message is [what Tom said]. Noun clauses and adjective clauses are identical. Their role depends on their place in a sentence. This is true because a nominal (noun clause) can function as an adjectival (adjective clause). Note that all noun clause subordinators ask a question. who? whom? what? where? which? whose? when? why? how? Their answers may substitute for the dependent clauses. As adjective clause subordinators, their answers are their antecedents. The message worried me. What Tom said worried me. The message, what Tom said, worried me. Adverb Clauses Adverb clause subordinators are always at the beginning of the dependent clauses, and are not a part of the clause-sentences. Subordinator + clause sentence (As) I am President, Adverb clauses can be reduced. As President, Any adverbial can be at several locations within a sentence. Quickly the big man with the cigar had fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had quickly fled the scene. The big man with the cigar had fled the scene quickly. Adverbials cannot exist immediately before a verb train, but may exist immediately before a head verb. Adverbial Subordinators after although anytime anywhere as as far as as long as as near as as often as as soon as as if as though because before even if even though for if like once since so so that than that though unless until when while Trailing Subordinators [I’m so tired (that)] I will retire. (That I’m so tired, I will retire.) Adjective clause or adverb clause? Remember, an adverb clause can be moved around. Also, an adjective clause subordinator has an antecedent. Tom, when he tries, wins. Tomorrow, when I go to school, will be a sunny day. Conditional Statements If [sentence 1] then [sentence 2]. If Tom tries then he will win. Conditional statements are used in the mathematics of logical thinking. If I study then I will pass. If I pass then I will succeed. If I succeed then I will make money. Therefore, If I study then I will make money. Adverb clauses [If I study then,] I will make money. Reduced, [If I study,] I will make money. [Had I studied,] I would have passed. (Argument ) (Premise )(Conclusion ) [If I study,][I will make money.] Adverbial subordinators are conditional subordinators. After I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [Tom gave his speech] then [I have arrived].) Before I arrived, Tom gave his speech. (If [I arrived] then [Tom gave his speech].) Adverbial prepositional phrases are also conditional. As President, Tom spoke first. (If [Tom spoke first] then [he is President].) Actually, all adverbials are conditional. If/then statements can be transposed. IfA thenB = notA or B. Example: If I study, I will make money. = I will not study or I will make money. This transposition is important when you study Propositional Logic. Propositional Logic is the mathematic study of logical text. Absolute Phrases An absolute phrase is really a reduced adverb clause of sorts. It applies a past or present participle. (As) our car (was) [having] (that which had) developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. Our car having developed engine trouble, we stopped for the night. (As I was) [having] (the fact that I) entered the building, I went to class. Having entered the building, I went to class. (As) his arms (were) [filled] with books, he could not sit down. His arms filled with books, he could not sit down. Conjunctive Adverbs Two clauses can be linked with conjunctive adverbs. The first clause ends with a period (.) or a semicolon (;) The man refused to comply. [As a result,] he was arrested. Because a conjunctive adverb is an adverb, it can be moved around in a sentence. The man refused to comply. He[, as a result,] was arrested. Conjunctive Adverbs accordingly again also as a result besides consequently finally for example further furthermore hence however in addition in contrast indeed in fact in particular instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless of course otherwise that is then therefore though thus yet This sentence is incorrect. Tom won the race, and therefore got the prize. This is correct. Tom won the race. Therefore, got the prize. Conjunctive adverbs are conditional subordinators. The man refused to comply. As a result, he was arrested. (If [the man was arrested] then [he refused to comply].) Meanwhile, (being) back at the Ranch, [conjunctive adverb][absolute phrase ] [verb ][direct object][prepositional phrase] Fourth Dependent Clause Type ‘That’ and ‘which’ can have entire sentences as their antecedents. The sewerage system overflowed at school. That was disgusting. The sewerage system overflowed at school, which was disgusting. Sentence Insertion Pronoun + antecedent sentence Tom was late. That worried me. That [Tom was late] worried me. The fact (which is) that [Tom was late] worried me. The pronoun (that) serves as the subordinator, also introducing the inserted clause. That [SENTENCE] Inserted clauses are also called that-clauses. Therefore, there are 6 nominals. 1. noun phrase 2. pronoun phrase 3. present participle phrase 4. infinitive phrase 5. noun clause 6. that-clause Adjective that-clause It is [true that people like cats]. It [,that people like cats,] is true. That-clause as subject [That Tom was late] worried me. As direct object I ask [that the class will listen]. Often the subordinator is omitted. I think (that) I will retire. The pronoun ‘what’ can be a nominal-inserter. The ‘inserted nominal’ is actually a reduced adjective clause, or appositive. Tom thought about what [to do next]. What a great player he is! He is what [a great player]! What is Tom doing hiding under his desk? Tom is doing what [hiding under his desk]. What he had to work with was scanty. He had what [to work with ] was scanty. [noun clause ][linking verb][adjective] [infinitive + phrasal verb] A bit of etiquette Wrong: This is John. Right: He is John. Literary Devices Sentence Inversions Grammar is the study of word class and function. Syntax is the study of sentence structure. Clefting It-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. It is Tom who went to the movie yesterday. It was to the movie where Tom went yesterday. It was yesterday when Tom went to the movie. Wh-clefts Tom went to the movie yesterday. What Tom did was to go to the movie yesterday. Tom saw Bill. Who Tom saw was Bill. Tom went to the classroom. Where Tom went was to the classroom. When Why How Cleft Inversion Tom needs a pen. What Tom needs is a pen. A pen is what Tom needs. Grammatical Patterns Basic Tom threw the ball suddenly. Passive The ball was suddenly thrown by Tom. Leading adverb Suddenly, the ball was thrown by Tom. It-cleft It is Tom who suddenly threw the ball. Wh-cleft What Tom did was to suddenly throw the ball. Dislocation using anticipatory it, they, there, them, with appositive relocation. (given) A very large storage container from an unknown source was dropped off in front of our house. (step 1) It [,a very large storage container from an unknown source,] was dropped off in front of our house. (step 2) It was dropped off in front of our house[, a very large storage container from an unknown source]. Tom threw the ball quickly. Tom threw it, the ball, quickly. Tom threw it quickly, the ball. I weeded the garden. I weeded it, the garden. The garden, I weeded it. Walking in the park is fun. It, walking in the park, is fun. It is fun, walking in the park. What Tom said worried me. It, what Tom said, worried me. It worried me, what Tom said. That is true. That Tom won the contest is true. It, that Tom won the contest, is true. It is true, that Tom won the contest. Spring blossoms smell wonderful. They, spring blossoms, smell wonderful. They smell wonderful, spring blossoms. Trees were everywhere. Trees were there, everywhere. There were trees, everywhere. I gave the books to George. I gave them, the books, to George. The books, I gave them to George. Fronting [adjectival] is [nominal] Happy is Johnathan. Fastened to the wall was a telephone. In the road was a large puddle. [adjectival][nominal] is Huge it was [adverbial][verb][noun] Before the marching soldiers were flung baskets of flower petals. Yesterday came a ferocious storm. Suddenly came the flight of the cranes. [adverbial][auxiliary][noun][verb] Never have I seen a more welcome sight. [direct object][noun][verb] Wise he had become over the years. Why she married him I really don’t know. [phrasal verb inverted][noun] Out jumped the frog from the reeds. End Weight Shift longest element to the end of the sentence. If subject is longest, (given) The prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts is favorable. (improved) It is favorable, the prospect of delivering a well-constructed plan for alleviating the distress of ill-timed intrusions from pending debts. If direct object is longest, (given) Tom provided a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution for the assembly. (improved) Tom provided for the assembly a well-engineered plan and a practical means of execution. (given) Sarah gave the most wonderful gift to Jude. (improved) Sarah gave to Jude the most wonderful gift. If conjunctions are used, longest element last. (given) Tom repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges and washed the car. (improved) Tom washed the car and repaired the troublesome problem with the door hinges. If adjectival is longest, (given) Someone who says they’ve known you for years called me up. (improved) Someone called me up who says they’ve known you for years.